The First Europeans: Ancient Genomes Reveal Complex Histories of Human Expansion and Neanderthal Interactions

Anthropology.net

A Glimpse into Europe’s Earliest Settlers

Over 45,000 years ago, small groups of modern humans roamed the icy expanse of Ice Age Europe. Among these pioneers were individuals whose lives and genetic histories have now been reconstructed from the oldest modern human genomes yet sequenced. Researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology have decoded1 the DNA of seven individuals found at sites in Germany and Czechia, revealing a lineage that carried traces of Neanderthal ancestry and left behind no modern descendants. Their findings illuminate a complex interplay of migration, isolation, and interbreeding at the dawn of human occupation in Europe.

The Zlatý kůň skull, found in 1950 in what is now the Czech Republic.Credit...Marek Jantač

Decoding the Oldest Genomes

The ancient genomes analyzed in this groundbreaking study come from two pivotal archaeological sites: Zlatý kůň in Czechia and Ranis in Germany. These individuals lived between 42,000 and 49,000 years ago, during a period when modern humans were venturing into a Europe already home to Neanderthals.

Illustration of Zlatý kůň, who belonged to the same population as the Ranis individuals and was closely related to two of them. © Tom Björklund for Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology

The genomic data reveals a small, tightly connected population descended from an early wave of humans who left Africa approximately 50,000 years ago.

“These individuals represent the oldest high-quality modern human genomes sequenced to date,” explained Arev Sümer, the study’s lead author. “Their DNA offers a direct window into the earliest phases of modern human presence in Europe.”

Intertwined Histories: Zlatý kůň and Ranis

The study linked the Zlatý kůň and Ranis populations through genetic evidence, identifying close familial ties between individuals at the two sites. Among the most remarkable findings was a fifth- or sixth-degree genetic relationship between a woman from Zlatý kůň and two individuals from Ranis, suggesting they were part of the same extended family.

“This discovery means the two groups not only shared a genetic lineage but likely produced the same distinctive LRJ-style tools found at both sites,” noted Sümer.

The researchers also found evidence of close kinship among the Ranis individuals, including a mother and daughter. Such findings suggest these early humans lived in small, mobile bands, navigating vast landscapes while maintaining familial bonds.

The cave in the Czech Republic where the Zlatý kůň skull was found in 1950.Credit...Martin Frouz

Neanderthal Connections and Shared Admixture

The genomes also shed light on the enduring genetic legacy of Neanderthal-modern human interbreeding. While all non-African populations today carry approximately 2–3% Neanderthal DNA, the Zlatý kůň and Ranis genomes provide a narrower timeframe for the shared admixture event that introduced this legacy. Using the length of Neanderthal-derived DNA segments, researchers dated this event to 45,000–49,000 years ago, aligning with the arrival of these modern humans in Europe.

“This shared Neanderthal ancestry marks a pivotal chapter in the history of modern humans outside Africa,” remarked Johannes Krause, the study’s senior author.

However, unlike later arrivals in Europe, the Zlatý kůň and Ranis groups showed no evidence of more recent Neanderthal interbreeding, suggesting they took a different migratory path or coexisted only briefly with their Neanderthal contemporaries.

A Vanished Legacy

Despite their historical significance, the Zlatý kůň and Ranis populations left no genetic mark on subsequent human generations. Their small population size—likely no more than a few hundred individuals—combined with environmental pressures may have led to their eventual disappearance. The study underscores the fragility of early human populations in Ice Age Europe, whose survival depended on navigating both climatic challenges and interactions with other hominins.

“Understanding these early groups helps us piece together the broader puzzle of human evolution and migration,” said Kay Prüfer, a co-author of the study. “Their story is a reminder of how much remains to be discovered about our shared past.”

Illustration of the Zlatý kůň/Ranis group. Around 45,000 years ago, individuals from Ranis in Germany and Zlatý kůň in… [more] © Tom Björklund for Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology

Revisiting the Dawn of Humanity in Europe

The genomes from Zlatý kůň and Ranis represent a fascinating chapter in the story of human expansion, offering glimpses into the lives of some of Europe’s earliest settlers. Through their genetic traces, researchers continue to unravel the complex interplay of migration, interbreeding, and isolation that shaped the early history of our species.

Related Research Studies

These studies delve into the genetic, temporal, and geographical dynamics of Neanderthal and modern human interactions.

1. Insights into Human Evolution from Neanderthal Genomes

   • Authors: Prüfer, K., et al.

   • Journal: Nature, 2014.

   • DOI: 10.1038/nature12886

   • Summary: Provides a high-coverage sequence of the Neanderthal genome, detailing its contributions to modern human ancestry.

2. The Genomic History of Southeastern Europe

   • Authors: Mathieson, I., et al.

   • Journal: Nature, 2018.

   • DOI: 10.1038/nature25778

   • Summary: Discusses ancient DNA evidence from Southeastern Europe, providing insights into the interactions between archaic and modern humans.

3. The Genetic History of Ice Age Europe

   • Authors: Fu, Q., et al.

   • Journal: Nature, 2016.

   • DOI: 10.1038/nature17993

   • Summary: Presents a genomic analysis of Upper Paleolithic humans, illustrating the complexity of gene flow between Neanderthals and modern humans.

4. The Evolutionary History of Neanderthal and Denisovan Y Chromosomes

   • Authors: Mendez, F. L., et al.

   • Journal: Science, 2016.

   • DOI: 10.1126/science.aad7715

   • Summary: Explores Y-chromosome evidence to better understand interbreeding and the timeline of gene flow events.

5. Reconstructing the Genetic History of Late Neanderthals

   • Authors: Hajdinjak, M., et al.

   • Journal: Nature, 2018.

   • DOI: 10.1038/s41586-018-0455-x

   • Summary: Examines the genetic legacy of Neanderthals, revealing complex patterns of interbreeding and demographic events.

6. The Genomic Landscape of Neanderthal Ancestry in Modern Humans

   • Authors: Sankararaman, S., et al.

   • Journal: Nature, 2014.

   • DOI: 10.1038/nature12961

   • Summary: Analyzes the distribution and functional impact of Neanderthal DNA segments in modern human genomes.

7. Detecting Recent Positive Selection in the Human Genome from Haplotype Structure

   • Authors: Voight, B. F., et al.

   • Journal: PLoS Biology, 2006.

   • DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0040072

   • Summary: Investigates the evolutionary dynamics of Neanderthal and Denisovan DNA introgressions in modern human populations.

8. Multiple Interbreeding Events Between Modern and Archaic Humans

   • Authors: Villanea, F. A., & Schraiber, J. G.

   • Journal: Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2019.

   • DOI: 10.1038/s41559-018-0735-8

   • Summary: Explores the frequency and implications of interbreeding between modern humans and archaic populations.

9. Functional Implications of Neanderthal Introgression in Modern Humans

   • Authors: Dannemann, M., et al.

   • Journal: Genome Biology, 2017.

   • DOI: 10.1186/s13059-017-1181-7

   • Summary: Focuses on the persistence and effects of Neanderthal-derived genes in contemporary human populations.

10. The Timing and Geographic Distribution of Neanderthal Gene Flow Into Modern Humans

    • Authors: Skoglund, P., & Jakobsson, M.

    • Journal: Nature Reviews Genetics, 2011.

    • DOI: 10.1038/nrg3025

    • Summary: Offers a synthesis of evidence on when and where modern humans encountered and interbred with Neanderthals.

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Sümer, A. P., Rougier, H., Villalba-Mouco, V., Huang, Y., Iasi, L. N. M., Essel, E., Mesa, A. B., Furtwaengler, A., Peyrégne, S., de Filippo, C., Rohrlach, A. B., Pierini, F., Mafessoni, F., Fewlass, H., Zavala, E. I., Mylopotamitaki, D., Bianco, R. A., Schmidt, A., Zorn, J., … Krause, J. (2024). Earliest modern human genomes constrain timing of Neanderthal admixture. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08420-x